SocialEvidenceToolsSocial media evidence software, compared
2026 comparison

Best social media evidence collection tools in 2026

Reviewed 2026-11-01 · 13 options compared
Short answer

There is no single best tool; it depends on the platform and the job. For preserving a whole public TikTok or Instagram account, with every video transcribed and each file SHA-256 hashed, Social Media Evidence is our specialist pick, from $19 per account. For broad capture across Facebook, X, LinkedIn and websites, Page Vault and WebPreserver cover more platforms, and Hunchly suits OSINT researchers who want every page logged as they work.

Social media evidence software saves posts, videos, comments and profile details in a form you can later show has not changed. This page compares 13 options used by lawyers, litigation support teams, police, private investigators, HR investigators and people representing themselves in the US, UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.

We checked each vendor's own pages on November 1, 2026 for four things: which platforms it captures, how it proves integrity (hashes, timestamps, signatures), what it publishes about price, and who it is built for. Where a vendor does not publish a detail, we say so instead of guessing.

Nothing here is legal advice. Whether a capture is admitted depends on the court, the jurisdiction and how the evidence was collected.

Feature comparison

ToolTypePlatformsIntegrityPricing
Social Media EvidenceForensic captureTikTok, InstagramSHA-256 per file, UTC server timestampsFrom $19 per account, one-time, 30-day access
Page VaultForensic captureFacebook, Instagram, TikTok, X, LinkedIn, YouTube, Websites, Video, Online documentsSHA-256 per item, metadata, affidavits availableOn Demand profiles from $349; browser plans quote only
WebPreserverBrowser extensionFacebook, Instagram, TikTok, X, LinkedIn, YouTube, Twitch (recording), WebsitesSHA-256, digital signatures, authenticated timestampsQuote only
Pagefreezer Social DiscoveryDesktop forensic captureFacebook, X (Twitter), Instagram, LinkedIn, YouTube, Tumblr, Websites, WebmailMD5 per item, API metadata, loggingQuote only
HunchlyOSINT captureAny web or social media page viewed in the browserAuto-logged URLs, timestamps and hashesFree plan; Classic USD 169 or EUR 149 per year
Forensic OSINTBrowser extensionTikTok, Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, Facebook Marketplace, Telegram, Others (vendor)Hashed captures, digitally signed PDF reportsFree plan; Elite Assisted Capture $2,097 per year
Paliscope BuildOSINT captureWeb pages, Video, Images, Mobile extractionsHashes, timestamps, blockchain-protected audit trailQuote only
Maltego EvidenceOSINT collectionFacebook, Instagram, TikTok, X, YouTube, Telegram, VKontakte, OdnoklassnikiChain-of-evidence reports; hash algorithm not statedQuote only (Maltego Organization plan)
Hanzo ChronicleCompliance archivingDynamic websites and web apps, Social content (networks not named)WARC (ISO 28500), WORM storage, SHA-256Quote only
SmarshCompliance archivingLinkedIn, Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, X, YouTube, Vimeo, Vidyard, BombBombNative format, timestamps, participant metadataQuote only
CivicPlus Social Media ArchivingCompliance archivingFacebook, Instagram, X, TikTok, YouTube, LinkedIn, Nextdoor, Flickr, Pinterest, VimeoAPI capture; hashing not describedQuote only; free trial
Magnet AxiomMobile and computer forensicsMobile devices, Computers, Cloud sources, VehiclesNot described on product pageQuote only; free trial
Cellebrite InseyetsMobile forensicsUFED device extractions, Cloud warrant returns, Other extraction toolsCourt-ready reports; custody tracked in GuardianQuote only

The 13 tools compared

The order runs from forensic capture of other people's public content, through OSINT investigation tools, to compliance archives for an organization's own accounts and phone and computer forensics suites. Prices are as published on vendor sites on November 1, 2026; "Quote only" means no price is published.

Specialist pick: TikTok & Instagram

Social Media Evidence

Forensic capture · US / Australia

Social Media Evidence is a cloud forensic capture service from the US and Australia that archives every post, Story and comment on a public TikTok or Instagram account for lawyers, investigators and self-represented litigants.

You add a public account by username. You do not need a TikTok or Instagram login of your own; sign-in is with a Google account. The service downloads videos, photos, Reels, Stories and carousels in original quality, along with captions, hashtags, mentions, view and like counts, follower counts and location. Comments are captured with nested replies (up to 200 per TikTok post). Each file gets a SHA-256 hash at capture, and every video is transcribed with OpenAI's Whisper so you can search what was said.

As of November 2026 it supports TikTok and Instagram only; Facebook and Snapchat are listed as coming soon. It cannot archive private accounts, and it exports CSV and JSON rather than a PDF capture report. Pricing is a one-time payment per account, from $19 with 30-day access, and the exact price is shown before you pay.

Key features: SHA-256 hash on every file, with posted and captured times recorded in UTC by its servers; Threaded comments and nested replies with usernames and timestamps; Automatic Whisper transcripts of every video and Reel; Forensic AI Search with answers that cite the exact posts; CSV and JSON export, plus 48-hour read-only share links.

Verdict Best for lawyers, investigators and self-represented litigants who need a whole public TikTok or Instagram account preserved, transcribed and searchable, including Stories before they expire. Social Media Evidence ↗

Page Vault

Forensic capture · US

Page Vault is a forensic capture tool from the US that saves web pages, social media profiles and video with metadata and SHA-256 hashes, through its own browser software or a staffed On Demand service, for law firms and legal teams.

Page Vault covers more ground than most tools here: Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, X, LinkedIn, YouTube, ordinary websites, Wayback Machine pages and online documents. Its pricing page lists On Demand social media profiles from $349, websites from $199 and video projects from $299, with affidavits available. Browser plans are sold on annual contracts and their prices are not published.

Key features: Capture software that works like a web browser; On Demand service that collects for you; SHA-256 hash values for each item; Timestamps, URL data and access metadata; Affidavits available.

Verdict Best for law firms and government legal teams that want in-house browser captures across many platforms, or a done-for-you collection with an affidavit. Page Vault ↗

WebPreserver

Browser extension · Canada

WebPreserver is a browser extension from Canada, made by Pagefreezer, that captures social media pages, whole timelines, video and live streams with hashes, digital signatures and timestamps for investigators and legal teams.

WebPreserver's strength is volume inside the browser. It expands collapsed comment threads for you, keeps capturing a timeline in the background while you work, and records live streams on Twitch and YouTube Live before they end. It is subscription-only, and Pagefreezer does not publish prices.

Key features: Automatic expansion of comments and replies; Background capture of whole timelines and websites; Live stream and screen recording; SHA-256 hashes, digital signatures and authenticated timestamps; Searchable PDF, MHTML, WARC and MP4 exports.

Verdict Best for investigators and legal teams who capture whole timelines, with comments expanded, from inside the browser. WebPreserver ↗

Pagefreezer Social Discovery

Desktop forensic capture · Canada

Pagefreezer Social Discovery is a Windows desktop application from Canada that collects, searches and exports social media, website and webmail content for eDiscovery and digital forensics examiners.

This product was X1 Social Discovery until X1 sold it to Pagefreezer, a sale reported by eDiscovery Today on December 19, 2023. It collects Gmail, Yahoo Mail, Outlook.com, AOL Mail and any IMAP mailbox alongside social media. It needs a 64-bit Windows 10 machine with at least 16GB of RAM.

Key features: Social media, website and webmail collection in one case; Multi-page website crawls; Platform metadata through publisher APIs; MD5 hash per item, kept through export; Automated logging and reports.

Verdict Best for eDiscovery and digital forensics examiners who want social, web and webmail collection in one desktop case tool. Pagefreezer Social Discovery ↗

Hunchly

OSINT capture · Germany

Hunchly is an OSINT capture tool from Maltego, a German company, that automatically logs, hashes and timestamps every web page an investigator views and builds the captures into case reports.

Hunchly runs in the background while you research, so nothing is lost between deliberate captures. Maltego announced in May 2025 that it had acquired Hunchly. One limit, noted in Bellingcat's online investigation toolkit: video is saved as screenshots rather than as video files, so footage needs a separate method.

Key features: Automatic capture of every page you visit; URL, timestamps and hashes recorded for each page; Automatic audit trail; Client- and court-ready report packages; Free plan and a 30-day free trial.

Verdict Best for OSINT researchers and private investigators who want every page they visit logged and hashed automatically. Hunchly ↗

Forensic OSINT

Browser extension · Canada

Forensic OSINT is a Chrome extension from Canada, made by the company behind Forensic Notes, that captures pages as seen, expands comments, downloads video and produces digitally signed PDF evidence reports for investigators.

The free plan allows 100 captures and 3 video downloads a year, enough to test it on a real matter. Video downloads come with a signed continuity report that includes the SHA-256 hash of the delivered file. As of November 1, 2026, its pricing page lists Elite Assisted Capture at $2,097 a year for new yearly subscriptions; check the site for its other paid plans.

Key features: Full-page capture with comments expanded; Video download with a signed continuity report; Digitally signed, hashed PDF reports; Case management; Free plan with 100 captures a year.

Verdict Best for solo investigators and small firms who want signed PDF captures in Chrome and a free tier to start. Forensic OSINT ↗

Paliscope Build

OSINT capture · Sweden

Paliscope Build is an on-premises investigation platform from Sweden that captures web pages, video and images, logs hashes and timestamps automatically, and produces audit-trailed reports for police and investigative teams.

Build runs on your own servers, connected or fully air-gapped, which suits units that cannot send case data to a vendor's cloud. Licenses are sold for single users or teams, and Paliscope does not publish prices.

Key features: One-click capture of web pages, video and images; Automatic logging of hashes, dates and times; Blockchain-protected audit trail; HTML and PDF evidence reports; On-premises deployment, connected or air-gapped.

Verdict Best for police and government units that need capture and case records on their own servers, including air-gapped networks. Paliscope Build ↗

Maltego Evidence

OSINT collection · Germany

Maltego Evidence is a desktop collection tool from Germany that gathers posts in bulk from social networks and stores them locally for analysis and court reports, for law enforcement and government teams.

Maltego's documentation lists eight collection modules: Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, X, YouTube, Telegram, VKontakte and Odnoklassniki. Collected data stays within your own system. Maltego's training material says Evidence is only available on the Maltego Organization plan, and the product page does not state a hash algorithm.

Key features: Bulk collection from eight social networks; Collection through crawling profiles; Evidence and target profiles stored locally; One-click target reports; Usage logging.

Verdict Best for law enforcement and government teams collecting large volumes of posts across several networks. Maltego Evidence ↗

Hanzo Chronicle

Compliance archiving · US / UK

Hanzo Chronicle is a compliance archiving service from the US and UK that records dynamic websites and social content in WARC format on immutable storage for regulated enterprises.

Chronicle is built for keeping records of your own web properties, not for collecting an opposing party's posts. Its product page does not name specific social networks.

Key features: Capture of interactive pages and web apps; WARC files compliant with ISO 28500; Immutable (WORM) storage; SHA-256 hashes with a time-stamped audit trail; PDF export packages with screenshots and metadata.

Verdict Best for regulated enterprises in finance, insurance and life sciences that must keep records of their own websites and social content. Hanzo Chronicle ↗

Smarsh

Compliance archiving · US

Smarsh is a compliance archiving platform from the US that automatically captures an organization's own social media activity for supervision and record-keeping in regulated industries.

Smarsh names SEC Rule 17a-4, FINRA Rules 3110 and 4511, and FCA requirements among the rules it supports, plus public records laws for government. It archives accounts the organization controls rather than collecting other people's posts.

Key features: Automatic capture of company social accounts; Posts, comments, direct messages and Stories; Records kept in native format with metadata; Support for SEC, FINRA and FCA record-keeping; Legal hold and eDiscovery.

Verdict Best for financial services firms and other regulated organizations archiving their own staff's business use of social media. Smarsh ↗

CivicPlus Social Media Archiving

Compliance archiving · US

CivicPlus Social Media Archiving is a compliance archiving service from the US that captures a public agency's own social media accounts in near real time so records can be searched and produced for public records requests.

Formerly ArchiveSocial, it can publish records through a public Open Archive. Its product page does not describe hashing or chain-of-custody features, so treat it as a records tool first.

Key features: API-based capture in near real time; Ten platforms, including Nextdoor; Searchable record database; Public-facing Open Archive; Free trial.

Verdict Best for city and town governments, state and federal agencies, schools and police departments meeting public records duties for their own accounts. CivicPlus Social Media Archiving ↗

Magnet Axiom

Mobile and computer forensics · Canada

Magnet Axiom is a mobile and computer forensics suite from Canada that recovers, analyzes and reports on data from phones, computers, cloud and vehicle sources for digital forensic examiners.

Axiom is for examining a device or account you have lawful access to, not for saving a public post you found online. Magnet sells a separate product, Axiom Cyber, for incident response and eDiscovery work.

Key features: Recovery of data from mobile and computer sources; Cloud and vehicle sources; Analysis and data visualizations; Reports for stakeholders; Free trial.

Verdict Best for police digital forensic units examining phones and computers rather than capturing public posts. Magnet Axiom ↗

Cellebrite Inseyets

Mobile forensics · Israel

Cellebrite Inseyets is a mobile forensics suite from Israel that extracts and decodes phone data and analyzes cloud warrant returns for public safety, enterprise and defense teams.

Cellebrite's Physical Analyzer ingests extractions from Cellebrite UFED, cloud warrant returns and other tools; the Inseyets suite also includes UFED Cloud. It suits agencies with legal authority to access devices and accounts, not quick capture of public posts.

Key features: Phone extraction with UFED; Decoding and analysis in Physical Analyzer; Cloud warrant return analysis; Court-ready reporting; Chain of custody in the separate Guardian product.

Verdict Best for law enforcement agencies that already extract phones with Cellebrite and want cloud data in the same case. Cellebrite Inseyets ↗

Guides

  1. Page Vault alternatives for capturing social media evidenceSeven Page Vault alternatives compared on platforms, hashing, reports and published prices, from free OSINT tools to WebPreserver and TikTok specialists.
  2. TikTok evidence capture tools: how to save TikTok videos for courtHow to save TikTok videos, captions and comments for court, and which capture tools list TikTok, with hashing, transcripts and prices compared.
  3. Instagram evidence capture tools: posts, Reels and StoriesInstagram evidence capture tools compared for posts, Reels, Stories and comments, plus how to preserve Instagram Stories as evidence before they expire.
  4. Social media evidence tools for family lawyers and self-represented parentsWhich social media evidence tools suit custody, divorce and protection order matters, for family lawyers and self-represented parents, with costs and limits.
  5. Social media evidence tools for investigators: OSINT vs forensic captureOSINT tools, forensic capture and device forensics compared for private investigators, HR investigators and police, with the tools that fit each job.
  6. How much does social media evidence capture cost?What social media evidence capture costs in 2026: published prices for Social Media Evidence, Hunchly, Page Vault and Forensic OSINT, plus free methods.

How we compared the tools

We reviewed the websites of more than 20 social media evidence and archiving products and kept the 13 that are currently sold and either preserve social media content with integrity features or archive it for record-keeping. For each tool we recorded:

We left out older names that now belong to listed products (X1 Social Discovery is now Pagefreezer Social Discovery, ArchiveSocial is now CivicPlus Social Media Archiving, and Social Network Harvester became Maltego Evidence). We also left out OSINT search platforms such as Skopenow and ShadowDragon SocialNet, whose pages we reviewed do not describe evidence preservation features, and Vere Software's WebCase, which we could not confirm is still sold.

Social Media Evidence is our specialist pick for TikTok and Instagram. For other jobs, the verdict lines above and the table below point to a better fit.

Forensic capture vs screenshots

Forensic capture means saving online content together with information that shows it has not changed: a hash value for each file, a timestamp the user did not type in, the source URL and other metadata. A screenshot saves only the pixels on the screen.

FeatureScreenshotForensic capture
Hash valueNoneRecorded for each file (SHA-256 in most of the capture tools here; MD5 in Pagefreezer Social Discovery)
TimestampOnly if visible on screen; device clocks can be changedRecorded by the tool or its servers
Source URL and accountOnly if visibleRecorded as metadata
Video and audioOne frameThe full file; some tools also transcribe it
CommentsWhatever was expanded on screenOften captured with replies and usernames
Who explains itUsually the person who took itThe capture record, plus the person or vendor who ran it

Screenshots still have a place. Under US Federal Rule of Evidence 901(b)(1), a witness with knowledge can testify that an item is what it is claimed to be. But a bare screenshot is easier to challenge, and it cannot show whether anything changed after it was taken.

Forensic capture has a limit too. A hash shows a file has not changed since capture; it does not show who wrote the post. Linking an account to a person usually needs other evidence, such as admissions, account records or the content itself.

Further reading: Screenshots vs forensic social media capture from Social Media Evidence.

Free methods and their limits

You can preserve some social media without paying. Each free method has a gap, and the platforms' own tools only work on your own account.

MethodWhat it savesMain limits
Screenshots and screen recordingsWhat is on screen; recordings can show scrolling, playing video and the address barNo hash or server timestamp; URL and time only if visible; the person who made it usually has to explain it
Instagram: Export your informationYour own account's information, by type and date rangeOwn account only; the link can take up to 30 days; the download is available for 4 days; some deleted information will not appear
TikTok: Download your dataYour own data, which may include username, watch history and comment historyOwn account only; may take a few days; the file is available for up to 4 days; data affecting others' privacy may be left out
Facebook: Export your informationContent you shared and activity, as a ZIP in HTML or JSONOwn profile only; the file is available for four days
X: Download an archive of your dataA ZIP in HTML and JSON with your posts, Direct Messages, media and follower listsOwn account only; identity verification by code
Wayback Machine: Save Page NowOne public page with images and CSS, at a permanent public URLOne page at a time; content behind a login is generally out of reach; captures are public
archive.todayPage text, images, JavaScript-loaded content and a screenshot, at a short permanent URLNo video, sound or PDF; 50MB page limit; captures are public
Webrecorder ArchiveWeb.pagePages you browse, exported as WARC or WACZ files (free, open source)No hashing, signing or capture report described; technical to use

Two cautions. Public web archives are visible to anyone, which matters if the content is sensitive or the other side should not know you are collecting. And the platform export tools cannot give you another person's posts.

A sensible free routine: screenshot or screen-record immediately, save a public archive copy if the page is public and not sensitive, export your own account data if the evidence is in your messages, then move to a hashed capture once the matter looks likely to reach a court or tribunal.

Which tool fits which job

Match the tool to the job, not the brand. A tool that is right for a police unit can be wrong for a family lawyer with one account to preserve.

JobGood fitWhy
Whole public TikTok or Instagram account, with transcriptsSocial Media EvidenceArchives every post, Story and comment; SHA-256 per file; Whisper transcripts; from $19 per account
Single posts across Facebook, X, LinkedIn and websitesPage Vault or WebPreserverBroad platform coverage, SHA-256 hashes and capture exports
A vendor collects and provides an affidavitPage Vault On DemandStaffed service; social media profiles from $349
Long OSINT research sessionsHunchlyLogs and hashes every page visited; Classic USD 169 a year
Occasional captures on a small budgetForensic OSINTFree plan with 100 captures a year and signed PDF reports
Social media, websites and webmail in one desktop casePagefreezer Social DiscoveryWindows application with MD5 per item
Police unit on an air-gapped networkPaliscope BuildOn-premises deployment with a blockchain-protected audit trail
Bulk collection across many networksMaltego EvidenceEight collection modules; data stored locally
Archiving your own company's accounts for regulatorsSmarsh or Hanzo ChronicleBuilt for SEC, FINRA and similar record-keeping rules
Public records for a government agency's own accountsCivicPlus Social Media ArchivingNear real-time API capture and a public Open Archive
Data on a seized or handed-over phone or computerMagnet Axiom or Cellebrite InseyetsDevice and cloud forensics
Your own posts and messages, freeThe platform export toolsSee the free methods table above

What courts look for

Courts rarely ask which software you used. They ask whether the item is what you say it is, and whether it has changed. A good capture makes those questions easier to answer. This section is general information, not legal advice.

United States

Federal Rule of Evidence 901(a) requires "evidence sufficient to support a finding that the item is what the proponent claims it is." That can come from a witness with knowledge (901(b)(1)) or from distinctive characteristics taken together with all the circumstances (901(b)(4)). Rules 902(13) and 902(14), added in 2017, let certified records generated by an electronic process, and data authenticated "by a process of digital identification," self-authenticate through a qualified person's certification. The committee note says identical hash values "reliably attest to the fact that they are exact duplicates," but the other side can still object on other grounds, such as hearsay. State courts apply their own rules.

England and Wales

The Crown Prosecution Service's guidance on communications offences, last updated in June 2026, says that when a matter is reported, police should make a data retention request to the platform so evidence is secured. It also lists taking screenshots of offending material among the steps people can take when reporting abuse. Civil courts apply their own procedure rules.

Canada

Under section 31.1 of the Canada Evidence Act, a person who wants to admit an electronic document must prove it is what it purports to be. Section 31.2 links the best evidence rule to the integrity of the electronic documents system that recorded or stored it. Provinces have their own evidence statutes.

Australia

Under section 146 of the Evidence Act 1995 (Cth), if a device or process is one that, if properly used, ordinarily produces a particular outcome, it is presumed it did so on the occasion in question, unless evidence sufficient to raise doubt is adduced. The presumption can be challenged, so the capture method still matters. States and territories that use the uniform evidence law have matching provisions.

New Zealand

New Zealand applies its own Evidence Act 2006, so check the local rules and the court's practice notes.

Across all five countries the practical points are the same: record the URL and account, capture the content with a hash and a reliable timestamp, keep the original file untouched, and be ready to explain who captured it and how. For civil discovery of social media in the US, The Sedona Conference Primer on Social Media is a widely cited starting point.

Questions and answers

Q.Are screenshots enough as social media evidence?

A.Sometimes, but they must be authenticated. In US federal courts, Rule 901(a) requires "evidence sufficient to support a finding that the item is what the proponent claims it is," which a witness with knowledge can provide. A screenshot has no hash, server timestamp or recorded URL, so it is easier to challenge than a capture that records them.

Q.What is hash verification?

A.NIST defines a hash value as "the result of applying a hash function to data." Capture tools record a hash, such as SHA-256, when they save a file. If you hash the file again later and get the same value, it is an exact copy. The US committee note to Rule 902(14) says identical hash values "reliably attest to the fact that they are exact duplicates."

Q.What do Federal Rules of Evidence 902(13) and 902(14) do?

A.Added in 2017, they make certified records generated by an electronic process (902(13)) and data copied from a device, storage medium or file and "authenticated by a process of digital identification" (902(14)) self-authenticating, using a qualified person's certification and advance notice under Rule 902(11). The committee note says the certification only establishes authenticity; the other side can still object on other grounds, such as hearsay.

Q.What is the difference between compliance archiving and evidence capture?

A.Compliance archiving, such as Smarsh, Hanzo Chronicle and CivicPlus Social Media Archiving, continuously records an organization's own accounts or websites to meet record-keeping rules such as SEC and FINRA requirements or public records laws. Evidence capture tools, such as Page Vault, WebPreserver, Forensic OSINT and Social Media Evidence, collect someone else's public content on demand for a specific matter, with hashes and capture records.

Q.Can I use Instagram's or TikTok's download tool to get the other party's posts?

A.No. Those tools only cover your own account. Instagram describes its export as a password-protected process that only the account holder can access, and TikTok says some data, such as data that affects the privacy of others, may not be available. To preserve another person's public posts, use a capture tool, an archive service, or a formal request through the court or the platform.

Q.Can these tools capture private accounts?

A.Generally not without lawful access. Social Media Evidence archives public accounts only, and browser extensions capture what your own logged-in browser can see. Data held by the platform usually needs legal process; Cellebrite's Physical Analyzer, for example, works with cloud warrant returns. Lawyers should check their professional conduct rules before viewing or seeking access to a represented party's private account.

Q.How much does social media evidence capture cost?

A.Published prices run from free (screenshots, platform exports, web archives) to enterprise quotes. As of November 2026: Social Media Evidence from $19 per account, one-time, with 30-day access; Hunchly Classic USD 169 or EUR 149 a year; Page Vault On Demand social media profiles from $349; Forensic OSINT Elite Assisted Capture $2,097 a year. WebPreserver, Hanzo, Smarsh, CivicPlus, Magnet and Cellebrite are quote-only. See our pricing guide.

Q.How does Australian law treat records produced by software or devices?

A.Under section 146 of the Evidence Act 1995 (Cth), if a device or process is one that, if properly used, ordinarily produces a particular outcome, it is presumed to have done so on the occasion in question, unless evidence sufficient to raise doubt about the presumption is adduced. Because the presumption can be rebutted, the capture method, hashes and timestamps still matter.

Sources

  1. Federal Rules of Evidence, Rule 901: Authenticating or Identifying Evidence (Cornell LII). The US authentication standard that applies to screenshots and captures.
  2. Federal Rules of Evidence, Rule 902: Evidence That Is Self-Authenticating (Cornell LII). Rules 902(13) and 902(14) and the 2017 committee note on hash values.
  3. NIST Computer Security Resource Center glossary: hash value. Standard definition of a hash value.
  4. The Sedona Conference Primer on Social Media, Second Edition (2019). Widely cited guidance on discovery of social media in US civil litigation.
  5. Crown Prosecution Service: Communications Offences. England and Wales prosecution guidance on offences committed through social media, including Online Safety Act 2023 changes.
  6. Evidence Act 1995 (Cth) s 146: Evidence produced by processes, machines and other devices (AustLII). The Australian presumption for evidence produced by devices and software.